GRE写作学习类的备考资料

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　　18 技术革命的重要性及其对社会的九大影响

　　Imagine what will happen when the cost of a long distance telephone call becomes as low as the cost of a local call? Or, when you can get a driving license at a time and place of your own choosing? Or, when you can bank from the comfort of your own living room? In some countries, ICT is already making these happen. Many believe that the current technological revolution may in time exceed the Industrial Revolution in terms of social significance.

　　New technologies transform our lives by inventing new, undreamed of things and making them in new, undreamed of ways. The introduction of new technologies can have the following effects on society:

　　1. Initial productivity slowdown and delayed productivity payoff from the new technologies

　　2. Destruction of human capital (as many old skills are no longer wanted)

　　3. Technological unemployment (temporary but serious)

　　4. Widening disparities in the distribution of income, which tends to be temporary until the supply of labor catches up to the new mix of skill requirements

　　5. Big changes in regional patterns of industrial location (globalization)

　　6. Big changes in required education

　　7. Big changes in infrastructure (e.g., the information highway)

　　8. Big changes in rules and regulations (intellectual property, antimonopoly, etc.)

　　9. Big changes in the way we live and interact with each other

　　23 科学的哲学

　　Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions, foundations, and implications of science. The　field is defined by an interest in one of a set of “traditional” problems or an interest in central or foundational concerns in science. In addition to these central problems for science as a whole, many philosophers of science consider these problems as they apply to particular sciences (e.g. philosophy of biology or philosophy of physics). Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to draw philosophical morals. Although most practitioners are philosophers, several prominent scientists have (and do) contributed to the field.

　　Issues of ethics, such as bioethics and scientific misconduct, are not generally considered part of philosophy of science. These issues may be studied in ethics or science studies.

　　第五大类 学习类

　　1 亚里士多德观点： 知识的定义

　　“We suppose ourselves to possess unqualified scientific knowledge of a thing, as opposed to knowing it in the accidental way in which the sophist knows, when we think that we know the cause on which the fact depends, as the cause of that fact and of no other, and, further, that the fact could not be other than it is. Now that scientific knowing is something of this sort is evident—witnesses both those who falsely claim it and those who actually possess it, since the former merely imagine themselves to be, while the latter are also actually, in the condition described. Consequently the proper object of unqualified scientific knowledge is something which cannot be other than it is.”

　　—Aristotle, Posterior Analytics

　　6 获取知识的四大条件

　　The four requirements for knowledge are: S knows that P if (1) S knows that P is true; (2) S believes that P is true; (3) S is justified in believing that P is true; (4) S.s justification in believing that P does not rest on any false beliefs. Without these requirements, you cannot have knowledge. Your thought may still be true, however, you cannot know something if it is possible it is not true. This brings us to how you know if what you think is true. However, it is impossible for us to have this certainty. Infallible knowledge is impossible for humans to obtain based on the fact that there is always a chance that we are mistaken. Yet, the Epistemist argues: the refutation of skepticism is pure and simple. I know that there is a piece of paper in front of me, for I see a piece of paper in front of me. Skepticism says that I do not know this. Therefore skepticism is wrong. However, just as in the Epistemist.s example, the only way we can obtain knowledge is through our five senses. Whether we learn something from a class lecture, reading a book, or touching something, we are relying on our senses to convey the knowledge to us.

　　8 创新的定义

　　A convenient definition of innovation from an organizational perspective is given by Luecke and Katz (2003), who wrote: "Innovation is generally understood as the introduction of a new thing or method. Innovation is the embodiment, combination, or synthesis of knowledge in original, relevant, valued new products, processes, or services."

　　Innovation typically involves creativity, but is not identical to it: innovation involves acting on the creative ideas to make some specific and tangible difference in the domain in which the innovation occurs. For example, Amabile (1996) propose: "All innovation begins with creative ideas. We define innovation as the successful implementation of creative ideas within an organization. In this view, creativity by individuals and teams is a starting point for innovation; the first is necessary but not sufficient condition for the second".

　　For innovation to occur, something more than the generation of a creative idea or insight is required: the insight must be put into action to make a genuine difference, resulting in, for example, new or altered business processes within the organization, or changes in the products and services provided.

　　9 创新的特点

　　A further characterization of innovation is as an organizational or management process. For example, Davila (2006), write: "Innovation, like many business functions, is a management process that requires specific tools, rules, and discipline."

　　From this point of view, the emphasis is moved from the introduction of specific novel and useful ideas to the general organizational processes and procedures for generating, considering, and acting on such insights leading to significant organizational improvements in terms of improved or new business products, services, or internal processes.

　　10 创新者的八大特点

　　A 2005/6 MIT survey of innovation in technology found a number of characteristics common to innovators working in that field.

　　1. They are not troubled by the idea of failure.

　　2. They realize that failure can be learned from and that the "failed" technology can later be reused for other purposes.

　　3. They know innovation requires that one works in advanced areas where failure is a real possibility.

　　4. Innovators are curious about what is happening in a myriad of disciplines, not only their own specialism.

　　5. Innovators are open to third-party experiments with their products.

　　6. They recognize that a useful innovation must be "robust", flexible and adaptable.

　　7. Innovators delight in spotting a need that we don?t even know we harbor, and then fulfilling that need with a new innovation, and as such.

　　8. Innovators like to make products that are immediately useful to their first users.

　　38 想象力的概念

　　Imagination is the ability to form mental images, or the ability to spontaneously generate images within one?s own mind. It helps provide meaning to experience and understanding to knowledge; it is a fundamental facility through which people make sense of the world, and it also plays a key role in the learning process. A basic training for imagination is the listening to storytelling (narrative), in which the exactness of the chosen words is the fundamental factor to "evoke worlds".

　　It is accepted as the innate ability and process to invent partial or complete personal realms within the mind from elements derived from sense perceptions of the shared world. The term is technically used in psychology for the process of reviving in the mind percepts of objects formerly given in sense perception. Since this use of the term conflicts with that of ordinary language, some psychologists have preferred to describe this process as "imaging" or "imagery" or to speak of it as "reproductive" as opposed to "productive" or "constructive" imagination. Imagined images are seen with the "mind?s eye".

　　One hypothesis for the evolution of human imagination is that it allowed conscious beings to solve problems (and hence increase an individual?s fitness) by use of mental simulation.

　　46 八大关键学习方法

　　Some key study skills include:

　　1. Removing distractions and improving concentration

　　2. Maintaining a balance between homework and other activities

　　3. Reducing stress, such as that caused by test anxiety

　　4. Strategies for writing essays

　　5. Speed reading

　　6. Note-taking

　　7. Subject-specific study strategies

　　8. Preparing for exams

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